Early 20th Century Japanese Wars Essay - 2412 Words

Early 20th Century Japanese Wars From the beginning of the 20th century to the start of their participation in World War II, Japan was involved in 6 major wars and invasions, including the Russo-Japanese War and the Second Sino-Japanese War. Each of these wars were responsible for placing the Japanese people in a wartime mindset, thus affecting their views on violence during war. The Russo-Japanese War lasted from February 1904 to September 1905 and was fought over differing views about which country should control Manchuria and Korea. The war was instigated by the territorial issues that were resolved by military means. At the time, Japan’s fighting force was roughly half the size of the Russian army, but despite this limiting factor, the Japanese were able to defeat the Russians. This defeat shocked many around the world and completely shifted the power structure in East Asia, giving Japan more power and status world-wide. While Japan’s military capacity was dramatica lly smaller than Russia’s, the Japanese victory over the Russians illustrated the exemplary military strategy the Japanese utilized. It further illustrated to the people that the strategies that the military used here are effective and that they should be supported because of their success. This support was vital because it showed the people that they should support the military’s methods in the future, especially in later wars such as World War II. The faith that was entrusted to the military during thisShow MoreRelatedThe impact of World War 1 on Japanese development in the early 20th century2503 Words   |  11 PagesAssess the impact of World War 1 on Japanese development in the early 20th century.World War 1 and its aftermath, together with the great Tokyo earthquake of 1923, brought profound changes in social, intellectual, and urban consciousness. (Jansen 496)World War 1 caused many changes in the nation of Japan, both positive and negative. The whole infrastru cture of the country altered immensely during the early 20th century, even when compared to the drastic modernisation of the Meiji RestorationRead MoreEssay: to What Extent Was Japan Modernized by 1920s?1024 Words   |  5 Pagessociety as a whole. In the early 20th century, Japan achieved different levels of modernization in political, social, economic and cultural aspects. Although Japan still kept many traditional beliefs, it was the most modernized country in Asia at that time. Here, I will evaluate to what extent was Japan modernized by 1920s. In political aspect, Japan copied the political system of the Western countries by gradually setting up its constitutional monarchy in the early 20th century. Under the Meiji ConstitutionRead MoreThe Relationship Between China And East Asia Essay1708 Words   |  7 Pagesthis the tendrils of civilization often stretched to seek uncharted territory. This undying curiosity eventually culminated in what is now referred to as the â€Å"Age of Discovery,† which spanned from the 1500s to the 1800s. By the beginning of the 20th century, most of the world’s lands had already been discovered. Trade links between China and Europe had been around since the Hellenic Age. And in the year 1900 it had been 124 years since the founding of the United States of America. Cross the PacificRead MoreFirst Recorded In The 8Th Century, Ancient Myths And Legends1171 Words   |  5 PagesFirst recorded in the 8th century, ancient myths and legends have been a significant influence on Japanese culture and continue to inspire modern literature today. Indeed, children’s literature in most cultures is based on oral tradition and legends, but Japan is different because, according to scholar Ann Helling, â€Å"these Japanese picture books and others, with their vivid beauty and impact, must be the oldest printed books in the world that were written for young reader’s pleasure† (Hayashi 1).Read MoreThe Impact Of Haruki Murakami On The World War II939 Words   |  4 PagesWorld War II and the events following the end of the war. World War II was single-handedly one of the most impactful and life-changing events in history. According to BBC News, the war ended when two atomic bombs were dropped on Japan which caused Emperor Hirohito to surrender to the Allies. The Japanese people were oppressed and persecuted because they were the antagonists of the war. Haruki Murakami was born after the war and grew up in a Japanese society marked by war. Even after the wa r had endedRead MoreAnalysis Of The Three I s Of 19th Century East Asia Essay1525 Words   |  7 PagesImperialism, Isolationism, and Industrialization; The Three I’s of 19th Century East Asia When Japan and China enacted isolationist policies in the 16th century, Japan and China were among the most advanced countries in the world. Both nations felt that they did not need to nor desired to interact with the rest of the world, or intervene in disputes between â€Å"barbarians† (Aizawa 348.) As a consequence, throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, neither country advanced much technologically. On the other handRead MoreThe Rise Of The Late And Early 20th Century1693 Words   |  7 Pages The period surrounding the late and early 20th century was the most dramatic era in modern history. It was a period where Western ideals were pushed by motivated empires with ambitions of wealth and expanding territory and, while impossible to distinguish the most influencing factor that led to the Westernization of nations on a global scale, it is easy to determine key points that played important roles in world history. With Western cultures emerging with both technological and mi litary advantageRead MoreThe Major Events Of The 20Th Century Were Characterized1612 Words   |  7 PagesThe major events of the 20th century were characterized by devastating political experiences of wars and totalitarianisms that were born out of the shifts in philosophical, social, political and economic ideologies and movements across many regions of the world. During this time in history, communism took root in many states where people took control of the economies in order to establish a communist society that was based on a social economic order that was structured upon common ownership of theRead MoreChina, Japan, and the U.S. in the 20th Century1491 Words   |  6 Pagesthe 20th Century During the later half of the 20th century, China and Japan underwent both economic and non-economic reforms that were aided by the influence of the United States. In China, the death of Mao led to the rise of the dark horse candidate Hua Guo Fang, a transitional figure who denounced the Gang of Four. Though only in power for a few years, his last act was to revive Deng Xiaoping’s political office, a man that would do more for China in the next 20 years than the last century combinedRead MoreCompare the 1911 Revolution and the May Fourth Movement in Terms of Their Nature and Impact.1040 Words   |  5 PagesThe 1911 Revolution was an uprising initiated by the revolutionaries to overthrow the Qing Court, while the May Fourth Movement was anti-Japanese movement. In terms of their nature, they are quite similar; both of them are nationalistic, democratic, anti-government and anti-traditional. And in terms of their nature, both of them had made changes. They can be categorized int o different aspects like politically, economically and intellectually. Firstly, the 1911 Revolution and the May Fourth Movement

Robert Merton Strain Theory - 1606 Words

Robert Merton: Strain Theory Lashaya B. Jenae B. Raykyle H. Dominique W. Lidiya Y. Morgan State University Sociology 331-001 03/05/2015 Robert K. Merton developed the structural strain theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have available to achieve those goals (Crossman, 2015). Robert Merton saw society as having culturally-valued goals as well as culturally-valued means. These particular ways of life are shared on the expectations that tend to lead to success. For example, in the United States people tend to praise the â€Å"American Dream† of having a few kids, a white picket fence, a few nice cars and a good paying job all of which would be obtained if you have goals. The road to success in America is praised through hard work and education. If you work hard and finish school and have a degree you are in a sense one step closer to becoming successful over someone else that has taken a different route. Robert Merton took this information, analyzed it and realized that society does not always provide everyone with the means to always obtain their goals. Once there is an imbalance amongst the means of reaching your goals a sort of strain tends to occur, which is where Robert Merton developed his strain theory which consisted of five types ofShow MoreRelatedThe Strain Theory By Robert Merton1200 Words   |  5 Pagesgoals seem to be unachievable for a person? The strain theory that was developed by Robert Merton sheds light onto a possible answer for that question. The strain theory suggests that people put emphasis on achieving certain life goals or obtaining certain objects in their lives due to societal influences and pressures. When those goals or objects can’t be obtained stress is caused and it can influence more people to commit crimes. The strain theory separates people into four different paths whenRead MoreRobert Merton Strain Theory Essay1017 Words   |  5 PagesIdentify the key aspects of Robert Merton’s ‘strain theory’. It was a powerful statement focussing on the social causes of crime but what were its limitations? This essay is going to demonstrate an understanding of Robert Merton’s strain theory, the advantages of the Strain theory and also the disadvantages of the theory. Robert Merton (1910) best known for developing theories of deviance. Robert Merton is considered to be one of the most influential social scientists. Merton’s work is highlyRead MoreRobert Merton s Strain Theory1299 Words   |  6 PagesI have selected Robert Merton’s Strain theory and Edwin Sutherlands Differential Association theory and their approach to the study of crime for my essay. Robert Merton developed the theory that people engage in deviant behaviour when they can’t achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means. Deviance is a result of the strain an individual feels when they cannot achieve legitimately. Merton uses â€Å"The American Dream† to illustrate strain theory. Merton’s explanation is in two pieces; StructuralRead MoreThe General Strain Theory By Robert Merton1352 Words   |  6 PagesGeneral Strain Theory-Susan Smith In 1995, a very heinous, mysterious crime was committed the murder of two innocent boys by their mother. This crime was thought to be completely unexplainable. This mother convinced America that a black man had stole her car and kidnapped her children. Little did we know this suicidal woman would be capable of committing such a crime. There are many theories that you can apply to this case. However the theory that fits it most closely is the general strain theory. TheRead MoreThe Strain Theory Was Formulated By Robert K. Merton1088 Words   |  5 Pagesshooting himself in the head. The theory that could most likely explain what happened beyond this act would be the strain theory. The strain theory was formulated by Robert K. Merton. Merton argued that â€Å"society may be set up in a way that encourages too much deviance† (Study.com). Merton also believed there was â€Å"a disjunction between socially approved means to success and legitimate cultural goals† (Study.com). Lanza corresponds into this particular theory because he had been a troubled personRead MoreRobert Merton Stain Theory1204 Words   |  5 PagesRobert Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory James King Jr. Savannah State University Theories of Criminal Behavior Prof. W. Brooks March 4, 2012 Since the beginning of mankind criminality has been a major problem and the most debated topic of interest by theorist on the grounds of why crime is committed, who is more prone to commit crime, and what prevents people from committing delinquent acts. The formulation of the Stain theory and Anomie Theory by Robert Merton give insight on the many questionRead MoreThe Origin Of Criminal Behavior And / Or Deviant Behavior989 Words   |  4 PagesThere are numerous theories on how to explain the origin of criminal behavior and/or deviant behavior, one of those theories is called Strain Theory. Robert Merton was the sociologist that developed strain theory in 1949 (revised in 1968). Robert Merton based his theory on the fact that all people want to achieve the American dream of economic status. He believed that environmental factors caused a strain on a person’s ability to achieve the American dream of economic success and depending on whatRead MoreThe Strain Theory Of Criminal Behavior And Is A Breakdown Of Why People Commit Crimes1633 Words   |  7 PagesRunning Head: Strain Theory Stain Theory Keisha Harris Valdosta State University The strain theory explains the criminal behavior and is a breakdown of why people commit crimes. The theory was developed by an American Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1910-2003). Merton believed that the society influences deviance and plays a huge role in criminals committing crimes. Emile Durkheim (1858-1957) presented the earliest version of the strain theory. He believed that well-built societiesRead MoreCultural Differences Vs And Robert Mertons Strain Theory1433 Words   |  6 PagesThe strain theory analyses the extent to which people are able to pursue, access and achieve success. Strain theory says that those unable to achieve success experience strain which is a disconnect between desires and aspirations along with the means to achieve these variables. There are several responses and coping strategies that are connected to strain, one being crime. The cultural messages within strain are the goals and the means. There are two main theorist who explain strain, Robert MertonR ead MoreAnomie and General Strain Theories of Crime Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesAnomie/Strain Theory Historical Background The theoretical framework of strain theory can be credited to sociologist Emile Durkheim. Durkheim research on formed a platform for other sociologist to further develop strain theories of crime. One of which is Robert Merton. One of Durkheim’s major works that opened the door to further research on strain theories was his book, Suicide. In this book Durkheim sough to understand the why led to one’s own self-destruction. Emile Durkheim studied suicide rates

Attachment Free Essays

KENYA METHODIST UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS BBIT INTERNSHIP REPORT TITLE: REPORT ON ATTACHMENT AT ACHIEVERS COLLEGE OF PROFESSIONAL EMBU PRESENTED BY: HILDA WAWIRA KIVUTI REG NO: BIT-1-0328-1/2011 SUPERVISOR: TIMOTHY ALNODO Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree in business information technology Submission Date: CHAPTER 1 1. 0 INTRODUCTION I was attached at achiever college of professional in the department of information technology from 4 February 2013to 29 march 2013 The IT fraternity is a small group which comprises of six staffs four in EMBU college two in KERUGOYA college and two interns both in EMBU college who solve problems and offer solutions to computer users at the institution, whereby they would conduct a step by step approach to form of questions that would assist the ICT officers through logical processes of diagnosis and troubleshooting. If any problem occurs or suspected with the computer systems be it hardware, software and network, this was reported to ICT department, by phone or directly to the ICT staff. We will write a custom essay sample on Attachment or any similar topic only for you Order Now For the problems that cannot be solved through telephone communication, the ICT officers would visit the user at his or her office to solve the problems while there, for further diagnosis or troubleshooting, the ICT officers had to fill a form that contained specifications of the hardware component 1. I ORGANIZATION BACKGROUND. Achievers College is a renown institute in production of journalism media studies. It is registered with the minister of education (keg No MOHEST/P; C/1702/012) Achievers College has been accredited by association of Buss Execution (ABE). Institute of commercial management-(ICM) Association of Business management Administration (ABMA) to offer all courses in the college. 1. 2 ORGANISATION CONTACT AND PHYSICAL LOCATION Achievers College. P. o. box 1532-60000 EMBU Kenya CELL PHONE 0721606888/0773515224. WEBSITE: EMAIL: achiever college@yahoo. om LOCATION. The college is located at subira house-Behind EMCO house ? 1. 3 MISSION, VISION AND CORE VALUES OF THE ORGANIZATION MISSION Raising men to their respective destinies through professional moral spiritual training. VISION To become a preferred institution of higher learning in Africa the entire world. CARE VALUE. Professionalism integrity creating innovation teamwork unity of purpose respecting the customer effectiveness efficiency 1. 4 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE Board of goveners Board of goveners How to cite Attachment, Papers

Monitor Gender discrimination in workplace - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Monitor Gender discrimination in the workplace. Answer: Objective of the action plan and the proposed action Gender discrimination at workplace is still rampant in Australia as men earn more than women (24%) on an average. In the senior management roles there are very few women working part time. Only 15% of women are chief executives. There are 30 top companies in Australia without women on their boards (ABC News 2017). This is why one of our objectives is to reduce the level of gender discrimination by 50% by next year. It will help improve the status of the women and promote gender equality Thus, in order to reduce the gender discrimination the actions are Monitor the legal protections in regards to gender inequality and Improving the women status- flexible work hours for women and increase in recruitment in senior role and equal payment Anticipated outcomes of the proposed actions By monitoring the workplace adherence to the Gender Equality Act, it is possible to take stringent actions against people violating the policies and norms. Regular audit will help in this process. Taking strict actions such as law suit against the company or the suspending from workplace will help people restrain from gender discrimination. Women status can be increased by workforce participation in different roles. Offering the physical security benefits to women will help her in participating in senior roles. Equal financial returns as men will motivate women. In the long run it may help in gender parity, higher financial returns for the companies, innovation and increase in annual GDP (Charlesworth and Macdonald 2014). Key risk associated with the proposed actions The key risks associated with proposed action are that the discrimination at the workplace may go unnoticed. Underreporting may be the other major barrier to monitor the changes in the gender discrimination. Further lack of support from the family members may be the barrier to womens participation on the board in corporate sector. Although the corporate sector offers the senior management roles, lack of sharing of responsibilities by men at house prevents women empowerment (Chizema et al. 2015). These barriers will hamper the process of the attaining gender equity in workplace. Evaluation The best way to assess if the action plan is working is to conduct open and close ended survey. The target population will be the managers of the companies to identify the barriers faced by them in recruiting women in senior roles. Women will be surveyed to identify the barriers in working part time in senior management roles. Regular audits will help monitor the change. It will also help analyse the attitude and behaviour of people towards legislations and polices against gender discrimination. The audit results will also help in identifying any kind of implicit or conscious bias in workplace that is causing gender discrimination. Proposed action can be modified and designed considering the barriers and factors preventing 100% adherence of the workplace managers to the laws and regulations (Van den Brink and Stobbe 2014). References ABC News., 2017.Gender inequality still rampant in Australian workplaces: report. [online] ABC News. Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-26/gender-inequality-still-rampant-in-australian-workplaces-report/6976452 [Accessed 1 Dec. 2017]. Charlesworth, S. and Macdonald, F., 2014. Australias gender pay equity legislation: how new, how different, what prospects?.Cambridge Journal of Economics,39(2), pp.421-440. Chizema, A., Kamuriwo, D.S. and Shinozawa, Y., 2015. Women on corporate boards around the world: Triggers and barriers.The Leadership Quarterly,26(6), pp.1051-1065. Van den Brink, M. and Stobbe, L., 2014. The support paradox: Overcoming dilemmas in gender equality programs.Scandinavian Journal of Management,30(2), pp.163-174.

The Resiliency of African-American Families free essay sample

This paper examines the ability of African-American families to exhibit resiliency can be understood through a consideration of their historical circumstances This paper examines African-American history and the values that this community has, despite their history of slavery, discrimination and poverty. It examines the communitys strong commitment to education, a strong work orientation, and sense of responsibility. This paper also includes a study of African-American resiliency that was developed by the author in order to find out what adversities African-Americans faced in the pursuit of their education. The results of this study were then analyzed, and compared to the findings of prior research done on the subject. The survey included questions about age; experiences of racism, or discrimination; family structure during childhood and who helped raise them; and motivating factor for staying in school. From the paper: As slaves, black children were informally adopted and raised by other people in their immediate community rather than nuclear family arrangements. We will write a custom essay sample on The Resiliency of African-American Families or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These extended family arrangements are still a prominent feature of contemporary African-American families and may be considered a major survival tool. The most important service provided by black kinship networks is support to single mothers, especially teen mothers. Hills research has revealed that kin provide a wide range of support to young single mothers, often enabling them to complete their education or to obtain a job. Finally, the religious beliefs and behavior are strengths that exist among African-American families. In his research, Hill found that 82 percent of black adults said that religion was very important in their lives.

Punk Essays - Dispute Resolution, Ethics, Freudian Psychology

Punk Essays - Dispute Resolution, Ethics, Freudian Psychology Punk Punk is a term applied to a child or teenager who acts in an antisocial way. Punk music is a form of rebellion, and it turned against all other musical forms and influences at its time of creation. Punk music is as much cultural as it is musical. It is anarchic, against society, and against everything in established order. Patrick Goldstein's article, "Violence Sneaks into Punk Scene", is about one man's observation of the experiences with violence and aggressive nature of youth's rebellion. In the author's opinion, "The accounts of senseless violence, vandalism, and even mutilation at some area rock clubs read like a report from a war zone." Throughout Goldstein's article, Freudian theory can be utilized to explain the aggressive nature of the punk movement and youths involved in it. There are many different theories as to human nature. One of these theories exists under the thoughts of a prominent philosopher, and founder of Psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. His deductive argument entails his conclusion that man is bad, or as Freud explains it in his book, Civilization and Its Discontents, "Homo homini lupus." This phrase literally means man is a wolf to man. Freud felt all men are innately evil and his aggression lies within him as part of human nature. Freud felt aggression can be hidden deep in our subconscious and explode in certain situations. In Goldstein's article, there are many examples to show Freud's opinion to be true. As one punk rocker stated, "It's no wonder there are so many fights . . . these idiots kept punching us in the back. Finally I got fed up and started hitting these guys, even though they were bigger than me." Another was quoted as saying, "All they want to do is fight. And next time I'm going to be ready to give' em one." When we have provoked someone with any form of aggression or violence, the first reaction, even if it is not considered normal for their particular behavior, is to show aggression in return. Aggression does not have to be subconscious in nature. It can be on the surface of our behavior and in constant use. Our inclination to aggression is apparent in one's relationship with their neighbors and apparent in what they see as every day, casual behavior. One manager of a club remembered a situation dealing with two young women from a local punk band. "While one was talking to me, the other went into the girls' room and broke a bunch of beer bottles in the sink and ran her hands through the glass. Then she came out to talk to me, blood steaming down her arms." Others reported situations where several girls would carve X's into their arms with broken glass in support for a local band. Self mutilation in a show of aggressive behavior can come with positive outcomes and continues to reaffirm violence and aggression. Freud also believed aggression is another human instinct that brings us joy and happiness. However, civilization refuses any acts of violence, it oppresses this need of aggression deep in our consciousness. The first thing we do when no one is watching is anything civilization refuses to allow us to do. Goldstein, in his article, describes the dance craze called the Slam. He believes it is, "an organized gang of punk youths, leading to numerous incidents of violence at many area clubs." On the contrary, a member of an area band the Germs who would be considered a participant observer feels, "If they're doing that (Slam), then I know they are having fun." Freud's opinion of releasing aggression, bringing about happiness and going about it by defying civilization and cultural opinion, is the underlying reason for the punk movement. As seen through the classic examples of aggressive behavior in Goldstein's article, Freud's argument comprises factually correct statements, for both his time and the punk movement. His arguments conclusion is well supported and his premises meet the conditions of a deductive argument with relevance and ground. This means that wherever we come from, whatever our culture is, we are aggressive by nature. From that sense, civilization steps in with a beneficial purpose, as it tames the human nature. However, civilization creates human source of

Cross-calture management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Cross-calture management - Essay Example Researchers studying the success of cultural diversity programs have identified models that can be implemented into organizational environments. Having support for of senior management for diversity programs is identified as a major theme among most of the program models (Matton & Hernandez, 2004; Jayne & Dipboye 2004). This paper will examine the background of diversity in organizations, benefits of workplace diversity, challenges of diversity, popular diversity management models, the relevant research related to the importance of having support of senior management for diversity programs, and the individuals responsible for implementing diversity programs, that is, the diversity practitioner. Overview Workplace Diversity and its Importance Diversity can be defined as, "a mix of people of different socially relevant group identities working or living together in a defined social system" (Cox & Beale, 1997, p.13). Healthy workplace diversity can provide an organization with the tools to improve problem solving, enhance marketing, be more creative and flexible, and ultimately improve productivity and "the bottom line" (Thomas, 2006; Cox, 1994). While a company may recruit in order to create a climate of diversity, it can simultaneously open the door to truly hiring the best available talent in the global market instead of another "company man." Diversity promotes a multiplicity of viewpoints, thus creating the potential to generate more creative ideas and stimulate consideration of non  ­obvious alternatives (Kyriakidou, 2009). Further, diverse groups bring a broader and richer base of experience. This dynamic tends to create a higher level of critical analysis and a lower probability of "group think" (Cox, 1994). For example, studies show that women tend to be more tolerant of ambiguity than men. As a result, they tend to excel in completing tasks that are cognitively complex and/or ambiguous. Individuals with bilingual capabilities are another group that dem onstrates a great capacity for flexibility. Thus, workgroups that incorporate individuals with these characteristics are likely to demonstrate greater group cognitive flexibility (Cox, 1994). With the minority population growing, organizations are finding the need to adapt products, advertising and services to appeal to diverse interests. Studies show that members of minority cultural groups are more likely to give patronage to representatives of their own cultural group (Cox, 1994). Thus, organizations find the need to have their workforce mirror, at least in part, their clientele. In the for-profit sector, it has been seen that the evolving demographics in the United States have had a significant impact on the manner in which products currently need to be marketed in order to maintain or increase market shares. For example, Cox (1994) notes two examples of cosmetic companies, Avon and Maybelline, changing either their product or transferring the management of an otherwise unprofit able market of minorities, to people of color. Under different management these companies have adapted their products using shades that are more palatable to people of color and have reflected these changes in their advertisement. The results have been very positive and profitable for these companies in a previously

An Effective Interpersonal Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

An Effective Interpersonal Communication - Essay Example Another thing which is important in the mean of communication is that the person who is communicating does note carefully if the listener or the person who is being referred to understand the theme of the message. This can be achieved by a two-way process. By two way process here it is meant that the communicator should ask for replies from the person who is being referred to with the message. This would help to assure the communicator that his message is being interpreted properly by the listener. Similarly, if this is not done the message would be misinterpreted and other problems may arise because of this miscommunication (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). In a personal relationship, it should be noted that some expressions like nodding, smiling and movement of eyes etc. help as a tool for answering and creating the two-way process of communication. Similarly verbal messages like OK, I understand, true, indeed etc. also support the two-way process of communication. Positivism is one imp ortant aspect of the communication process. By positivism here it is meant that both the negative and positive aspects of the message should be kept in balance so that the person to whom the message is being referred to does not get a wrong concept. If this happens and the negative aspect is given more weigh the person who is being referred to may take it wrong and get discouraged by the other person’s response or assertions (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). Communication process has several barriers when dealing with the spouses.... Thus it is necessary that the communicator does not drag his message up to critical levels where the other listener gets confused by the message. This confusion can therefore lead to several other problems in the relationships (Kelly 1979 & Taylor 2001). Dear Sara and Tim, my advice to you for a successful relationship is to maintain a level of understanding and frankness which allows you to speak out ‘clearly’ your innermost feelings and communicate your expectation without hesitation. The expectations from the other partner to understand the unspoken or ambiguously communicated wishes may end up weakening the relationship. The communicator should make it a point that he is direct when communicating. The communicator should not involve irrelevant messages while he communicates as these irrelevant messages can lead to errors in understanding the basic idea or expectation of the other partner.. The misconception about reaching the point in communication is that the commun icator usually thinks that adding up other points may give him an advantage but this rather creates an absurd image in which one can miss out the main points of the original message. So it can be concluded that in communication it is necessary that the main point is laid out firstly so that it is not missed out later on (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). It is also necessary for the communicator to make up his speech in such a way that it does not sound cold or harsh. This is because the message would put down the listeners or the person to whom the message is referred to. And this would create other errors at the workplace as well as in the personal relationships. Thus it is necessary for

Environmental Ethics. Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Environmental Ethics. Assignment 3 - Essay Example Mill (2012) outlines three definitions of nature depending on the benefits derived from it. The first definition is that nature is a collective term used to refer to all events that take place within the universe. He also defines the nature as anything that adds value to life in manner that does not affect the occurrences of events. His interest to show the relations between human beings and nature made him refer to nature as a combination of all phenomena and the unused capabilities by human beings to control nature and derive benefits from him (Mill, 2012). Mill (2012) also states that when human beings neglect nature, it has a way of paying back by causing harm and damage. For instance, Mill states that floods and other natural hazards that occur are only a way of nature expressing its frustrations. Human beings should take care of nature and nature in return should ensure that it meets all the needs of human beings by ensuring that sustainability is maintained. . Mill states that Human beings should correct nature and put it in line rather than try to emulate it. It is only ethical for human beings to correct nature where it goes wrong and make improvements on the existing natural phenomenon. According to Mill (2012) human beings understand the consequences of their own actions but they tend to act ignorant. This ignorance has caused human suffering, and it has also affected the environment. Mill (2012) also outlines that humans are separate from nature and for this reason rules of nature are not applicable to man. From a spiritual perspective, God gave human beings power and dominion over all other creatures and nature itself. Mill (2012) states that God values nature, and he handed over the responsibility of taking care of nature to human beings. For this reason, human beings should take this assignment seriously and invest in nature so as to ensure that it works in their favor. In conclusion, Mill’s philosophical views originated from his

Biodiversity Of Punjab Shiwaliks Environmental Sciences Essay

Biodiversity Of Punjab Shiwaliks Environmental Sciences Essay There is an increasing awareness that biodiversity is not only intimately interconnected with long term health and vigor of the biosphere as an indicator of global environment but also as a regulator of ecosystem functioning. Tropical communities are often worse susceptible to loss of biological diversity than temperate communities because tropical species are occur in lower densities and are less widely distributed and often have weaker dispersal capabilities. Increasing human intervention and excessive exploitation of resources have resulted in great changes and provide alarming signals of accelerated biodiversity loss. The conventional species level approach for biodiversity management has major limitations. A major change in the understanding the priorities of biodiversity conservation and management has resulted in a policy shift from conservation of single species to their habitats through interactive network of species at landscape level is considered important (Orians, 1993; Edward et al., 1994). Biodiversity can be represented at various levels of organization, like alleles or genotypes within a population, species or ecosystem across a landscape or even a planet. There is a growing need for better understanding of the biodiversity distribution pattern vis-à  -vis human interventions. India have very varied environmental conditions and are among the countries with high biodiversity. The flowering plants, which provide maximum direct benefit to mankind, comprise about 19395 taxa, which is about 7% of the described species in the world (Karthikeyan, 2000). The vast stretches of coastal belt in south and high mountains species of Himalayas in the north provide a complex environmental set up or niches for plant and animals. It has resulted in the formation micro-endemic centres of plants in the country. The great heights and complex terrain of the Himalayan region, which change frequently, provide endless microclimatic conditions suitable to the species to grow and evolve. The Himalayas have more than 5 micro-endemic centres. Shiwalik ranges are one such mirco-endemic centre. About 125 wild relatives of crop plants have been reported in the western Himalayas and Shiwaliks ranges are part of these. These ranges are among the youngest hills in the world and are active as well as fragile. Shiwalik hills of Punjab state have rich biological diversity and act as major natural green belt of the state. The state is well known for agricultural produce and industries. But the degradational activity coupled with the destruction of forests in the name of developmental activities has altered the natural landscape of the region to a great extent. It is facing threat for its very existence again from mankind in the name development. Because of these increased anthropogenic activities, as a result of population explosion and change in land use practices, the natural landscape has been modified which has resulted in fragmentation of forests with poor species composition. Hence the resulting landscape mosaic is a mixture of natural and human managed patches that vary in size, shape and arrangement. Now it is realized that we must move from the conservation of single species to scales beyond individual sites and levels of organization. Understanding landscape spatial pattern is important since it contains all levels of the biological hierarchy, from ecosystems to species and genes, which are targeted for biodiversity conservation. Remote sensing technology is being widely used world over for the quick assessment of the Earth resources. Because it being a cost effective and repetitive in nature with synoptic coverages technology, has endless application potentials. The technology assumes significance in terms of conservation of natural resources as it provides birds eye view of the ecosystems or landscapes or regions and their status, because conservation is now not limited to a plant or species but much beyond that. Vegetation is composed of several communities and these communities may occur in patches of small to large size and in various shapes. Vegetation composition of these patches is governed by several environmental factors, and there exists a relationship of the biological richness with area of the forest and the influence of biotic factors. Ecologists have established the relationship among these environmental and biotic factors with the biodiversity. Patches can be characterized based on their size, shape, location, area etc. in through geospatial modeling in Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Thus various factors can be simultaneously considered and processed in GIS. In this report, vegetation type map derived from satellite data was considered as prime input for landscape ecological analysis of forest ecosystem. Geographic Information System (GIS) is used to derive landscape indices such as fragmentation, porosity, patchiness, patch density, interspersion and juxtaposition, which depict landscape characteristics. These indices were integrated with biotic pressure zones to depict disturbance gradient in the study area. Phytosociological data collected from field sampling was analyzed to derive species richness, biodiversity value and ecosystem uniqueness of various forest types. Ancillary databases such as proximity from the roads/villages, terrain complexity etc. were derived in GIS domain. All above inputs were integrated in systematic manner by assigning relevant weightages to derive maps showing disturbance gradient and biological richness. The resultant maps highlight areas that are biologically rich. 2. Study Area 2.1 Physical Climatic Status The study was carried out in the Shiwalik hills of Punjab state having geographical area of 9448.97 km2 and situated in north western part of the state. It lies between latitude 30o 34 10.82 and 32o 33 02.96 N and longitude 74o 50 30.30 and 76o 52 51.26 E. It is broadly divided into sub-mountainous Himalayas and the eastern and western alluvial plains. The important rivers draining the region are the Sutlej and the Beas. The average annual rainfall varies between 400 to 600 mm and the mean annual temperature ranges from 22.500 C to 25.00 C. 2.2 Geology The composition of the Shiwalik deposits shows they are nothing else than the alluvial detritus derived from the sub aerial waste of mountains, swept down by their numerous rivers and streams and deposited at their foot. This process was very much like what the existing river systems of the Himalayas are doing at present day on their emerging to the plains of Punjab. An important difference is that the former alluvial deposits now making up the Shiwalik systems have been involved in the latest Himalayan systems of upheavals, by which they have been folded and elevated into their outermost foot-hills, although the oldest alluvium of many parts of northern India serves to bridge the gap between the newest Shiwaliks and the present alluvium. 2.3 Lithology The Shiwalik system is a great thickness of detrital rocks, such as coarsely bedded sandstones, sand-rock, clay and conglomerates, measuring between 4,500 and 5,200 m in thickness. The bulk of formation is very closely similar to the materials constituting the modern alluvia of rivers. The lithology of the Shiwliks suggests their origin; they are chiefly the water-worn debris of the granitic core of the central Himalaya, deposited in the long and broad valley of the Shiwaliks. The upper coarse conglomerates are the alluvial fans or talus-cones at the emergence of the mountain streams; the great thickness of the clay and sand represents the silts and finer sediments of the river laid down in the lower plain. The weathering of the Shiwalik rocks has been proceeding at an extraordinally rapid rate since their deposition, and strictly abrupt forms of topography have been evolved in this comparatively brief period. Gigantic escarpments and dip-slopes separated by broad longitudinal strike valleys and intersected by deep meandering ravines of the transverse streams-surface features, which are the most common elements of Shiwalik topography. The strike is remarkably constant in a Northwest-Southeast direction, with only brief local swerves, while it is almost always in strict elevations. 3. Land Use Pattern The recorded forest area (including dry deciduous scrub) of Shiwalik hills of Punjab state is 1599.42 km2, which constitutes 16.93% total geographic area. The major forest types are dry deciduous, moist deciduous, dry deciduous scrub and coniferous forest. The non-forest area such as agriculture, grassland, water body, canals, settlements, riverbed and barren land contributes 7849.55 km2 which constitutes 83.07% of the total geographical area. 3.1 Vegetation type (a) Northern dry mixed deciduous forest (5B/C2) In most localities the tree canopy has been seriously broken by human activities, results in scattered tree and small shrubs. This forest is dominated by Acacia catechu, Anogeissus latifolia with the association of Lannea coromandalica, Aegle marmelos, Ehretia laevis, Mallotus philippensis, Nyctanthus arbor-tritis, Dendrocalamus strictus etc. (b) Dry bamboo brakes (5E9) Only one species Dendrocalamus strictus occurs and forms relatively low brakes with a sprinkling of the tree and shrubs of dry deciduous forest such as Anogeissus latifolia, Lannea coromandelica etc. (c) Dry deciduous scrub (DS1) A low broken soil cover of shrubby growth 3 to 6 m high including some tree species reduced to similar conditions, usually many stemmed from the base. The community is dominated by Woodfordia fruiticosa, Carrissa opaca, and Nyctanthus arbor-tristis with the some association Dodonaea viscosa, Aegle mormelos, Cassia fistula, and Acacia catechu. (d) Khair-Sissu forests (5/1S2) Dalbergia sissoo predominates in this association. The canopy is open associated with Acacia catechu. The older woods have more or less definite under storey, which is mainly composed of young species and few species of Tamarix dioca, Acacia fernesiana, Cannabis sativa and grasses like Saccharum spontaneum, Erianthus munja etc. (e) Shiwalik chirpine forest (9/C1) The pine stands singly or in groups with a scattered with lower deciduous tree story on the ridge and side slopes. There is usually a fairly continuous growth of xerophytic shrubs occurs as under-storey vegetation. Pinus roxburghii is associated with Mallotus philippensis, Pyrus pashia, Syzygium cuminii, Albizzia chinensis, Acacia catechu, and Terminalia chebula. (f) Subtropical Euphorbia scrub (9/C1/DS2) Euphorbia royleana forms consociations sometimes of considerable extent. Their distribution is related to edaphic factors, notably dry rocky ridges, where biotic pressure has been high. 4. Approach Biodiversity characterization satellite remotely sensed data is being used for deriving vegetation cover type map. The vegetation type thus derived represents the habitats and their surroundings. These patches of the different forest types occur randomly as per the existing environmental conditions. Using landscape ecological principals these can be analyzed and quantified. Some of these parameters are fragmentation, porosity, juxtapositions, interspersion etc. and indices are derived to show their characteristics. Proximity of forests to road and villages and their impact is established. All these layers are overlaid to obtain disturbance index. Disturbance index image is the important for characterizing and identifying least or no disturbed areas (Fig. 1). Ground observations are taken through stratified random sampling in all the forest types. Their economic uses have been found from literature. Total Importance Value (TIV) of each plant is established for its value for food, fuel wood, charcoal, timber, medicine etc. Ecosystem uniqueness is established from the list of the species found during survey based on its representativeness, species Fig 1: Approach for Biodiversity Characterization at Landscape Level Using Remote Sensing and GIS (after Roy et al., 1998) endemism etc. Biological richness is obtained after integrating species richness, biological value, disturbance index, ecosystem uniqueness, terrain complexity. 5. Materials and Methodology 5.1 Materials Following satellite remote sensing data have been used for land cover and land use classification of the area (Table 1). Table 1: Details of satellite data used Satellite ID Path Row Date IRS-1D LISS III 93 48 12 Oct. 2000 IRS-1D LISS III 94 48 03 Nov. 2000 IRS-1D LISS III 94 49 03 Nov. 2000 IRS-1D LISS III 95 49 31 Oct. 2000 IRS-1D LISS III 95 50 31 Oct. 2000 5.2 Ancillary data Survey of India topo sheets on 1:50,000 have been used. Relevant literature on flora has been consulted. 5.2 Vegetation Cover type mapping 5.3.1 Preprocessing of satellite data IRS-1D LISS-III data (Oct, 2000 and March, 2001) were used to prepare vegetation cover type map. A total five scenes were loaded and each scene was rectified with respect to 1:50,000 scale SOI toposheet (Total 32 toposheets were used, geometrically corrected and mosaicked to a single image). A second order transformation was followed. Average root mean square error within one pixel was maintained while preparing transformation model. Lambert Conformal Conic projection (LCC) was used during rectification of image (Fig. 2). Each rectified Fig. 2 FCC scene was subjected to radiometric correction before mosaicing it to a single mosaic image. After extraction of required area from this single mosaic image, it was subjected to Supervised Maximum likelihood classification using the ground truth information collected during the fieldwork. 5.3.2 Ground truthing Reconnaissance survey was carried out in the area to acquire the knowledge of the vegetation and other broad land uses. During reconnaissance information on the correlation of image elements with that of ground features was also obtained. Interpretation key was formulated and classification was performed. 5.3.3 Vegetation Classification Based on the a priori knowledge supervised classification method was followed. Training sites were selected and processed and the features with high classification accuracy were extracted. Using binary image the remaining area was extracted and unsupervised classification method was performed. The classified output was finally subjected hybrid classification approach to prepare vegetation type map of the study area showing various vegetation types. The accuracy of the image was evaluated using field knowledge and the ground truth information. Along with the different types of forest, other general lands use / land cover classes were also classified so as to understand the landscape of the region. Following forest classes have been delineated and a comparison with Champion and Seths (1968) classifications scheme is given below (Table 2). List of the land cover and land use classes identified on the satellite data. Moist deciduous forest Dry deciduous forest Dry deciduous scrub (Lantana) Coniferous forest Grass land Plantation/Avenue trees Agriculture Water body Settlement Riverbed/Barren land Table 2:Vegetation classes compared With Champion Seths Classification: Satellite based classification of vegetation types Champion and Seth Classification (1968) Moist deciduous forest Dry bamboo brakes Khair-sissu forest Dry deciduous forest Northern dry mixed deciduous forest Dry deciduous forest Dry deciduous scrub Subtropical Euphorbiascrub Dry deciduous scrub Pine Shiwalik chirpine forest 5.3 Field data One of the most important components of biodiversity characterization is the information on plants or species richness. Information on plant species is further processed for evaluating other parameters like Total Importance Value, Ecosystem Uniqueness, Biodiversity value etc. There it is important that well distributed enough sample are taken for information on species occurrence. Classified vegetation cover type has been used for finding the sample size. Sampling intensity of 0.021 % has been done. Higher sample intensity is adopted (than recommended) in view of variability in the area. 5.4.1 Sampling design Stratified Random sampling approach was followed and numbers of sample points were distributed to its probability proportional to its size. Field data was collected from 74 sample points of 2020 m size during October 2000 (Table 3). The sample plots of 20x20m were used for tree species and nested approach and nested approach has been followed for laying sample plots of 10x10m for shrubs and 1x1m plot (five plots) for herbaceous layer. The data was collected on following parameters in each of the sample plot. Description of ecosystem and forest type including phenology Species name and number of individuals for every species Girth at breast height in centimeters Economic importance such as grazing, medicinal, human food, fuel, timber, charcoal and other uses such as industrial use, rope making, tanning leather etc. This importance value was collected by interviewing local people interviewing wherever possible and from literature. The data was analyzed for deriving various indices indicating biodiversity value, species richness and ecosystem uniqueness for different forest types. Table 3: The distribution of sample points in each of the forest types found in all the Shiwalik Hills of Punjab state Forest Type No. of sample plots Moist deciduous 32 Dry deciduous 31 Deciduous scrub 7 Pine forest 4 Total 74 Database of all the species collected was created in MS Excel for further processing, details have been provided in the section on phytosociological analysis. 6. Database Creation in GIS In geo-spatial analysis integration of spatial and non-spatial data or vector data is important. As discussed earlier the biotic disturbance had played a very significant role in existing biodiversity of toady. Database in GIS domain provides opportunity to analyze their impact zones. Therefore, the following maps were digitized from ancillary sources for their integration: Village locations point and polygon features) Road and railway networks Contour lines with 20m intervals The road and settlement maps were used as input in further analysis for deriving disturbance gradient. Contour map was used to prepare digital terrain model using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4 software. 7. Landscape Analysis The approaches for biodiversity characterization discussed in the literature contains several broad categories such as genetically based approach, species based approach, ecosystem based approach, and integrative approach. The approach adopted in present study is integrative method that includes significance of ecological, social, and cultural factors to the biodiversity in addition to biological factors. The approach used for the study focuses on following aspects: Rapid assessment for monitoring of biodiversity loss and/or gain Mapping of biological richness to understand its spatial nature, that helps in planning and execution The customized package Bio_CAP is developed at Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun to carry out multi-criteria spatial analysis. The satellite data provide key input i.e. vegetation type, which is used for deriving several landscape indices (fragmentation, porosity, patchiness, interspersion, and juxtaposition) depicting status of forest ecosystem. Ancillary database on roads and settlements has been used to prepare proximity buffer map and contour map is used to prepare terrain complexity map. All these parameters were integrated together with the field data on species richness, ecosystem uniqueness and biodiversity value. The ultimate result is the map that depicts areas categorized as per disturbance index. 7.1 Landscape analysis using Bio_CAP The field data, vegetation type map and ancillary GIS data (roads, village locations, and contour) were analyzed using Bio_CAP (Biodiversity Characterization Programme) a customized package to prepare various indices depicting landscape characteristics. Fragmentation has been the major cause of biodiversity loss and has been measured as a number of forest and non-forest patches in per unit area. Patchiness is a measure of the density of patches of all forest types or number of clusters in a given mask or area. Porosity is a measure of number of patches or density of patches within a particular type vegetation, normally primary vegetation type(s), regardless of patch size. Interspersion is a count of dissimilar neighbor pixels (feature) with respect to central pixel (feature) of a particular grid or measurement of the spatial intermixing of the vegetation types. Juxtaposition is a measure of proximity and adjacency of two or more vegetation types. Higher weightage is given to the classes who share or are likely to share more boundary. Human influence zone is dependent on socio-economic set-up of the area/region and proximity the forest resources and can vary from 0.5 km to 5 km or even more. Proximity buffer or zone of influence from the roads and human settlements has been prepared. 7.2 Disturbance Index: Disturbance has direct impact on the occurrence of plants and animals or biodiversity. Disturbance regimes provide an insight into the impacted area and its degree of impact under various vegetation or other natural resources. Disturbance Index has been considered here as a function of fragmentation, porosity, patchiness, interspersion, juxtaposition and influence zones or distance for the source. The analysis has been performed in the customized GIS package called Bio-CAP for this purpose. 7.3 Biological Richness Biological forms of any area reflect the environmental conditions supporting the growth and evolution. Recently emphasis has been to look at the ecosystems (micro-climatic variations) or landscape diversity and its utility for conservation rather than one species. Therefore, the biological richness here has been considered as a function of ecosystem uniqueness, biodiversity value, species richness, Terrain complexity (computed through DTM by determining variance in DTM values) and most importantly disturbance index. The details of these parameters have been discussed elsewhere (Roy et al., 1999). 8. Observation Highlights 8.1 Vegetation Classification Hybrid approach has been followed to do the digital classification of the data set (Fig. 3). Table 4 summarizes the results of classification in the region. Forest types viz., moist deciduous, dry deciduous, pine and dry deciduous scrub together constitute about 1404.06 Km ², which is about 14.65 per cent of the total geographical area of the region. Non-forest classes such as agriculture, plantation, riverbed, barren land, settlement, grassland and water body makes up about 85.35 per cent of the geographical area. Amongst the forests, dry deciduous forest has Fig.3 classified map wide distribution in the region from Chandigarh to Pathankot and covers an area of 775.85 Km ². Dry deciduous scrub is the next dominant forest type of the region which is mainly constituted with Lantana scrub distributed throughout the region and then followed by moist deciduous forest found in Dhar, Pathankot, Dholba, Talwara, Nangal, Noorpur in a fragmented patches. And coniferous forest covers an area of 6.51 Km ² and is localized on the higher ridges or side slopes in the northern part of the Pathankot district. Table 4:Area under different Land cover / land use classes in the region Land use / cover class Area in km2 Moist deciduous forest 276.46 Dry deciduous forest 775.85 Dry deciduous scrub (Lantana) 345.24 Coniferous forest 6.51 Grass land 38.24 Plantation/Avenue trees 211.04 Agriculture 7443.22 Water body 78.94 Settlement 178.46 Riverbed/Barren land 238.19 Total 9592.15 9. Phyto-sociological analysis Phytosociological analysis was carried out to understand the floristic and vegetation pattern in the region. For the phytosociological analysis the vegetation types were grouped into five major types. Based on the species area curves developed initially an optimized field plots size of 2020 m was adopted uniformly for all the types. In each plot all the species names; height, girth, herbs and shrubs were recorded. The phytosociological database was created and computed the basic structural parameters viz. frequency, basal area and density. Utilizing these parameters the importance value index (IVI) was calculated for all the types (Annexure-II). Fig.4: Graphical presentation of Land use/land cover types and their Distribution. 9.1 Species richness (Shannon-Weaver Index) Species richness can be described as the number of the species in a sample or habitat per unit area. Higher the value greater the species richness. Species richness (Shannon Weaver Index) was measured using importance value index (Table 5, 6). Dry deciduous forest shows highest diversity (3.5361) with total number of 363 species followed by moist deciduous (3.0959) with moist deciduous forests then dry deciduous scrub (2.2666) having 77 species and coniferous forest shows least diversity (1.6207) with 58 species (Fig. 5). Table 5: Biodiversity status in the Shiwalik hills of Punjab state Forest Type No. of Families No. of Species Total no. of Species Total Importance Value Trees Shrubs Herbs Moist deciduous 36 42 24 95 161 10.46 Dry deciduous 31 141 75 147 363 10.53 Deciduous scrub 25 7 12 58 77 9.75 Pine 11 7 15 36 58 8.01 Table 6: Forest type wise Shannon Weaver Index in the Shiwalik hills of Punjab state Forest Type Average Basal Area (m2) Shannon Weaver Index SWI (H) Moist deciduous 38.412 3.0959 Dry deciduous 22.948 3.5361 Deciduous scrub 8.133 2.2666 Pine 6.53 1.6207 9.2 Economically Important Species Economically Important plants are the species, which have social and economic value. In the Shiwalik hills of Punjab state 240 economically important plants were recorded. The total importance value (TIV) for each species was calculated considering 10 important uses. The parameters considered are (1). Food (2). Fuel (3). Fodder (4). Fiber (5). Timber (6). Medicinal (7). Oil (8). Gums/Resins (9). Tannin and (10). Others. These 10 parameters have been weighted for a scale of 1 to 10 wherein maximum value represents highest economic value. Maximum total importance value was observed in dry deciduous type (TIV of 10.53) and coniferous type has the least value (TIV of 8.01) (Table 7). Some of the economically important species are Acacia catechu, Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda zeylanica, Ageratum conyzoides, Azadiracta indica, Cannabis sativa, Moringa oleifera, etc. List of 232 economically important species and their uses were given in the Annexure II. Fig 5: Species distribution in each habit type Table 7: Total Importance Value of different vegetation types Forest Type TIV % Moist deciduous 10.46 Dry deciduous 10.53 Deciduous scrub 9.75 Pine 8.01 9.3 Medicinal Plants About 132 medicinally important species have been recorded during the sampling. Medicinal usage of these plants occurring in Shiwalik hills of Punjab have been compiled from available literature sources. Some of the important medicinaly important plants are Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Bacopa monnieri, Cordia dichotoma, Terminlaia chebula, Terminalia bellirica etc. and the list has bee furnished (Annexure.IV). Table 8 provide overview of the per cent utilizable species. Table 8: Percent utilizable species for Total Importance value (TIV) Forest type USES Food Fuel Fodder Fiber Timber Medicinal Oil Gums/ Resin Tannin Others DD 11.15 0.79 9.09 9.8 10.2 31.66 5.02 3.5 5.18 9.83 MD 12.7 2.36 6.94 7.91 2.6 32.1 0.65 0.86 1.3 8.45 DS 10.05 2.21 9.06 9.31 9.55 31.61 6.37 3.18 6.61 8.09 PN 0 0 8.52 0 0 20.78 0 0 0 2.35 Total 33.9 5.36 33.61 27.02 22.35 116.15 12.04 7.54 13.09 28.72 9.4 Ecological importance: The species recorded during the field data collection were screened for their uniqueness with help of RED DATA BOOK (Anonymous, 1987, 1988, 1990) and many other references. All the species recorded were abundant in nature. However, two species were found to be rare, viz., Delphinium danudatum Wall. ex HK.f.Th and Peristylus constrictus (Lindl.) Lindl. 10. Results of Landscape analysis 10.1 Fragmentation Increasing anthropogenic activities created discontinuity in the natural vegetation cover gets fragmented and the class becomes porous. Thus, fragmentation analysis of a land use class is an important landscape characteristic, which defines the status of that class in the present day context. Among all the characteristics of the landscape, fragmentation is more significant. Hence, the results of fragmentation are being discussed. For analysis of fragmentation in the forest, the vegetation map was reclassified as forest and non-forest classes, which resulted in a new spatial layer. A grid cel

to build a fire Essay -- essays research papers

In the short story, â€Å"To Build a Fire† by Jack London shows how man vs. nature and how inexperienced traveler in the Yukon tries to travel alone with his dog, even though it’s advised not to. Yet he is stubborn and thinks he is right, and sets off for Henderson Creek to meet his friends. He faces many different conflicts of man verses man, and man verses nature. The traveler is advised not to make this trip with the lack of his inexperience in the Yukon due to the weather, the incoming storm, and its advisories. With the subzero freezing cold temperatures that came with the storm. â€Å"Fifty degrees below zero stood for a bite of frost that hurt and that must be guarded against by the use of mittens, ear flaps, warm moccasins, and thick socks.†(561) He is book smart, lacking street smart, and nature humbled him during his travel to reach his friends. He was doomed from the beginning, by him being inexperienced in the sub-zero temperatures of the region. He was although able to surpass some of the things that nature threw at him because of his observation of things due to his determination. But, he ignored the old man and his words that came back to haunt him in the end. The power of nature will most always prevail when you are in its playing field. This can be seen when London says, â€Å"Fifty degrees below zero stood for a bite of frost that hurt and that must be guarded against by the use of mittens, ear flaps, warm moccasins, and thick socks† (Page 561). â€Å"The trail was faint. A fo...

A Geographical Analysis of the Roadmap for Peace in the Middle East

The longstanding conflict between Israel and Palestine has had rippling effects on the world community. Not only has it devastated a community in both nations, but the war has transcended globally, as both nations gather allies to their diplomatic defense.The seemingly never ending war has left countless dead, homes destroyed and a hope for a normal life dismayed. In light of this, the United States took the initiative of creating a roadmap towards peace for both nations. Designed to create a Palestinian State that co-exists with Israel, both nations were handed down a set of conditions in 2002.Though accepted formally in 2003, both nations have failed to act upon the roadmap and have thus, once again, left a yearning for peace in the region (Steinberg, 2002). This paper will discuss the long detailed plan of achieving peace in the Middle East, relating the geographical and political elements, problems and prospects of implementation, and the short and long term consequences of succe ss.The roadmap to peaceOverview on the geographical and political elementsIn July 2000, former US President Bill Clinton, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, and Palestinian Authority President Yasser Arafat have initiated the meeting with the agenda to finalize the initial peace agreements signed during the â€Å"1993 Declaration of Peace Principles† between Israel and Palestine.Sadly, the meeting ended at no point of further agreements unless critical issues on peace pact would be strongly determined (Migdalovitz, 2006). The uncompromising leverage to peace negotiations between Israel and Palestine was futile to the peace initiative mediation of the â€Å"Mitchell Commission and the Paris Summit†, wherein the spate of violence were unabated (Steinberg, 2002).Violence intensified which highlighted the March and April 2002 serial bombings that accounted death toll of more than 100 Israelis as a result of Palestinian aggression. The US initiative to refocus a new approac h to peace negotiation was then attempted by former President George W. Bush sometime in June 2004, mediating the lull of Palestinian aggression against the Israelis (Steinberg, 2002).The initiation of the â€Å"Plan for Palestinian State† has been laid down to outline the peace pact which follows the establishment of the Middle East Quartet or peace process international cooperation in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, consistent with the United Nation’s peace pact proposal which is being negotiated by the US and other countries in the Middle East and European Union (Migdalovitz, 2006).Problems and prospects of implementationThe Israeli-Palestinian conflict has long been waged since the 19th century. In which case, it is noteworthy that the peace negotiations in the 21st century can be facilitated by mediating non-Arab countries, like the United States and the rest of European Union through the guiding peace pact proposals of the United Nations.Accordingly, only the l eaders in the Middle East could dutifully institute the peace pact, in which the â€Å"presence† of the United States only tries to â€Å"systematize the outlining of a roadmap† for the peace process to be concluded in a short or long term basis (Migdalovitz, 2006).However, the continuing peace process negotiation could meet a â€Å"sticking point† which the â€Å"roadmap† for the peace negotiations can be blurry as a result of the perceived political interests of major countries that get involve in the Middle East Quartet. The critical roles of involvement of major countries must be redefined, focusing on the elemental issues of achieving substantial peace accord between Israel and Palestine (Steinberg, 2002).One more additional impediment in the Middle East Quartet could be the internal establishment of confidence among the negotiators. Of which political interests may not be a â€Å"dà ©tente† or intent to easing the tensions or strained relati ons between Israel and Palestine. It may be critically reconsidered that the Arabs accuses the Israelis for being an illegitimate which has been the campaigns of Yasser Arafat to remove 3,000 years of Jewish history in Jerusalem.The abhorrence of the Arabs to Israelis is likewise entangled in the envisioning of independent Arab states, from which Israel’s foreign relations have indicated bluntness with the European countries, as hostile stance has even contributed by the United Nations Security Council’s 2002 Anti-Israel Resolution upon attack in Gaza Strip (Steinberg, 2002). These critical reconsiderations equate a far-reaching disposition that would pave the way for an expedited peace pact and settle the long-time conflict on top of the negotiating table of the Middle East Quartet. A Geographical Analysis of the Roadmap for Peace in the Middle East In the past, geography had been one of main issues of conflict in the international community because having larger territories means having more wealth and power compared to other countries. In the early days, Spain was one of the main colonizers in our world history.Due to the many territories that they had, Spaniards were considered rich. They have many lands to plant crop, for mining of minerals, and the likes. The competition of who and what territory was a big issue for most of the powerful states in the past. However, the concept of power through geographical location and territory is still present such as the conflict of Israel and Palestine.The conflict of the Israel and Palestine penetrated the international community in the 1990’s. The conflict is a part of the widely known â€Å"Arab-Israeli† conflict. Basically, the dispute of Israel and Palestine is concerning land territory.The two states have been claiming the land ever since and both of these state beli eve that they have authority over that land for many historical, religious and geographical.Currently, the conflict of Israel and Palestine became more personal to both countries. Unlike the past, the whole conflict was related to the Arab and Israelites but now it is more focused on the territory of the Gaza and the West Bank region which borders the two conflicting states.Since the time that had passed, many changes had happened in relation to the situation of Israel and Palestine. Different states intervened with the situation and showed interest in the situation.The United States had joyfully included itself as the major key player in the resolution of the conflict. In June 24, 2002 President George W. Bush delivered his speech and encouraged Israel and Palestine to create peaceful negotiations towards having friendly relations and harmony among each other. In his speech he stated thatâ€Å"We express our determination to bring an end to the blood shed, suffering and decades of conflict between our peoples; to usher in a new era of peace, based on freedom, security, justice, dignity, respect and mutual recognition: to propagate a culture of peace and non-violence; to confront terrorism and incitement, whether committed by Palestinians or Israelis.In furtherance of the goal of two states, Israel and Palestine living side by side in peace and security, we agree to immediately launch good-faith bilateral negotiations in order to conclude a peace treaty, resolving all outstanding issues, including all core issues, without exception, as specified in previous agreements.† (Bush, np)President George W. Bush expressed his enthusiasm towards the great possibilities of the positive relations between Israel and Palestine. HE imply for a program called â€Å"The Roadmap for Peace in the Middle East† that would provide proper guidance to the states to be able to achieve the goal of peace and harmony.He has continuously suggested that there be negotiations . There would be a committee that would specifically address the issues of the states involved in the conflict. A joint work plan would be established as well as an overseeing team to monitor the projects.The â€Å"Roadmap for Peace in the Middle East† is a plan formed by the United States shaped to stop the conflict between the Israel and Palestine. The conflict resolution will be led by the â€Å"Quartet† which is composed of the United States, Russia, The European Union and the United Nations .The plan was presented at the Israel Palestinian Authority last April 30, 2003.The US Department of State said, â€Å"The plan is a performance-based, goal-driven plan, with clear phases, timelines, and benchmarks. It involves reciprocal steps by the two parties in the political, security, economic, and humanitarian fields† (Bureau of Public Affairs, np).The concept of the Road map is mainly obliging the Palestinian Authority to create democratic reforms and neglect the utilization of terrorism. On the other hand, Israel should support and recognize the materialization of a new Palestine Government including the settlement of the Gaza and West Bank conflict.The assumed out come of the strategy is the broad resolution of the Israel and Palestine conflict however, the dedication and good-faith efforts by both states are necessary for the implementation of the Road map. Other than the members of the Quartet, other regional Arab leaders will exertion effort to maintain and assist the progression.   (Bureau of Public Affairs, np)

Middle School Science Fair Projects

Middle School Science Fair Projects It can be a challenge to come up with a middle school science fair project idea. There is fierce competition to come up with the coolest idea, plus you need a topic that is considered appropriate for your educational level: Elementary School ProjectsMiddle School ProjectsHigh School ProjectsCollege Projects This is your chance to shine! Middle school students may do alright with projects that describe or model phenomena, but if you can answer a question or solve a problem, you will excel. Try to propose a hypothesis and test it. Aim for a typed presentation with visual aids, such as pictures or physical examples. Choose a project you can do fairly quickly, to give you time to work on the report (no longer than a month). Schools may prohibit projects using hazardous chemicals or animals, so play it safe and avoid anything that might raise red flags with your teacher. Can you significantly affect your household water bill or electric bill (water or energy usage) by making a change in you or your familys behavior? For example, you might track changes you are making, like shorter showers or turning off lights, and record the utility usage.What household waste materials might be used to filter water? Examples of materials you might try would include banana peels and coffee grounds.What materials glow under black light? Can you use the UV light to find invisible, possibly smelly, stains in your carpet or elsewhere in your house?Will chilling an onion before cutting it keep you from crying?Does catnip repel cockroaches better than DEET?What ratio of vinegar to baking soda produces the best chemical volcano eruption?What type of plastic wrap prevents evaporation the best?What plastic wrap prevents oxidation the best?What percentage of an orange is water?Are night insects attracted to lamps because of heat or light?Can you make Jello using fresh pineappl es instead of canned pineapples? Do white candles burn at a different rate than colored candles?Does the presence of detergent in water affect plant growth?Can a saturated solution of sodium chloride still dissolve Epsom salts?Does magnetism affect the growth of plants?How does the shape of an ice cube affect how quickly it melts?Do different brands of popcorn leave different amounts of unpopped kernels?How accurately do egg producers measure eggs?How do differences in surfaces affect the adhesion of tape?If you shake up different kinds or brands of soft drinks (e.g., carbonated), will they all spew the same amount?Are all potato chips equally greasy?Do the same types of mold grow on all types of bread?Does light affect the rate at which foods spoil?Can you use a household water filter to remove flavor or color from other liquids?Does the power of a microwave affect how well it makes popcorn?Do all brands of diapers absorb the same amount of liquid? Does it matter what the liquid is (water as opposed to juice or... um.. urine)? Do all dishwashing detergents produce the same amount of bubbles? Clean the same number of dishes?Is the nutritional content of different brands of a vegetable (e.g., canned peas) the same?How permanent are permanent markers? What solvents (e.g., water, alcohol, vinegar, detergent solution) will remove the ink? Do different brands/types of markers produce the same results?Is laundry detergent as effective if you use less than the recommended amount? More?Do all hairsprays hold equally well? Equally long? Does the type of hair affect the results?What effect do additives have on the crystals? You could add food coloring, flavorings, or other impurities.What steps can you take to maximize crystal size? You can affect vibration, humidity, temperature, the  rate of evaporation, purity of your growth medium, and time allowed for crystal growth.How do different factors affect seed germination? Factors that you could test include the intensity, duration, or type of light, the temperature, the amount of water, the presence/absence of certain chemicals, or the presence/absence of soil. You can look at the percentage of seeds that germinate or the rate at which seeds germinate. Is a seed affected by its size? Do different size seeds have different germination rates or percentages? Does seed size affect the growth rate or final size of a plant?How does cold storage affect the germination of seeds? Factors you can control include the type of seeds, the  length of storage, the  temperature of storage, and other variables, such as light and humidity.What conditions affect the ripening of fruit? Look at ethylene and enclosing a fruit in a sealed bag, temperature, light, or nearness to other pieces or fruit.How are different soils affected by erosion? You can make your own wind or water and evaluate the effects on soil. If you have access to a very cold freezer, you can look at the effects of freeze and thaw cycles.How does the pH of soil relate to the pH of the water around the soil? You can make your own pH paper, test the pH of the soil, add water, then test the pH of the water. Are the two values the same? If not, is there a relationship between them?How close does a plant have to be to a pesticide for it to work? What factors influence the effectiveness of a pesticide (rain? light? wind?)? How much can you dilute a pesticide while retaining its effectiveness? How effective are natural pest deterrents?

Use of Performance Appraisals as a Reward System

Use of Performance Appraisals as a Reward System Performance appraisal has been described as the process whereby the relative worth of an employee in a particular company is evaluated. It involves measurement of an employee’s work behaviors, comparing them to already established standards and communicating the results back to the employee. Performance appraisals were instituted as a means of income justification i.e. they were used to decide if an employee deserved to be paid a given wage amount (Lawrie, 1990).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Use of Performance Appraisals as a Reward System specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This application of performance appraisals has continued until now but many arguments have been raised on its usage particularly as a means to justify pay increases or cuts. Personally, I believe performance appraisals to be an integral part of an organization operation and that its advantages outweigh any disadvantages perceived. In the p ast, performance appraisals were only used as a remuneration tool whereby it was assumed that a rise or a cut in pay was the only motivation employees needed to improve their work. This view however changed after numerous researches proved that the traditional system often failed since salary levels was not the only element that determined employee performance (Locher Teel, 1977). The modern performance appraisal system is aimed at identifying an employee’s strengths and weaknesses as well as determining ways of improvement and subsequent skills development. The performance appraisals are also used to determine reward outcomes whereby bonuses, promotions and pay increases are allocated to employees who are judged to have performed above a given level. The main purpose of a given company is to generate profits and thus employee management is a very important aspect. One of the most important features involved in employee management is the performance appraisal system. When co rrectly used, it serves as a tool for identifying and fixing problems facing the employees. Non-productive members in the organization can also be identified and appropriate measures taken either through training or dismissal. Performance appraisals should inherently be associated with reward outcomes. It is essential for organizations to distribute rewards in an open and fair manner whereby those most deserving in regards to merit and results are identified and justly rewarded. The performance appraisal system is the only process available that can be applied to achieve a rewarding system that is fair and consistent. Apart from this performance appraisal also offer other advantages when used as a pay-increase system. Employees generally expect to be rewarded when they perform better and tend to distrust the management if they feel someone who is less deserving has received a reward (Lawrie, 1990). This can be easily solved using a performance-based pay increase system. Secondly, th is system allows for financial planning.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Time and time again, companies face financial difficulties and thus it is very hard to distribute what little is available among the workers. With a performance appraisal system geared on pay increase, the company can isolate those individuals who really deserve an increase from the rest. However, many critics have pointed out that this system is flawed without any way to perfect it (Derven, 1990). Many have pointed out that this system damages trust between managers and employees in the workplace thus undermining harmony in the workplace. The performance appraisal system is usually done by the managers who are given the task of being the judge and the jury. The employee in this case becomes the defendant trying to defend their performance levels to a work mate. If negative feedback is provide d an employee becomes disgruntled and the communication system between the employees and the management team begins to suffer (Heathfield, 2009). Another argument against the use of the system for pay increases or cuts is that it limits an employee from performing at his/her personal best. Once an employee receives a feedback that he does not believe to be fair, he becomes defensive and his work begins to suffer as he believes the manager is against him and that there is no need for him to apply himself (Derven, 1990). In conclusion, a performance appraisal system that is used to determine pay increase has its flaws but is indispensable to any particular organization. Since no alternative way to fairly judge who merits a pay increase and who does not, this system cannot be neglected. If a well structured appraisal system does not exist in a company, people will informally and arbitrary judge each other’s work performance creating more problems in the organization. Reference L ist Derven, M.G. (1990). The paradox of performance appraisals Personnel Journal, 69(4), 107-111. Heathfield, S.M. (2009). Performance Appraisals Don`t Work. Retrieved from https://www.thebalancecareers.com/performance-appraisals-dont-work-1918846 Lawrie, J. (1990). Prepare for a performance appraisal. Personnel Journal, 69(2), 132-136.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Use of Performance Appraisals as a Reward System specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Locher, A.H., Teel, K.S. (1977). Performance appraisal a survey of current practices, Personnel Journal, 56(5), 245-257

Effectiveness of the Department of Homeland Security Research Paper

Effectiveness of the Department of Homeland Security - Research Paper Example Reflecting on what happened on that fateful day; one is left wondering how it happened and where the security agents were at the time. However, what is clear is that the intelligence agencies failed in their mandate to protect the country from such catastrophes. A reflection of the incidence show the Pentagon being raced down by planes hijacked by terrorists. In fact, many people were taken aback by the incident including the security agents. Therefore, to prevent such attacks in the future and to ensure that America becomes a secure country to live in and do business, George Walker Bush, undertook a proactive move that led to the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security. The move to establish the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was informed by the need to protect the U.S. against terrorism, according to Ball (2005). DHS had 22 different federal agencies charge with different roles aimed at ensuring that the country is safeguarded from terrorist threats. The fact th at DHS had 22 different federal departments made it the third largest Federal department in the country. An overview of the Department of Homeland Security's responsibilities in prevention and emergency response The responsibilities of the Department of Homeland Security as far as prevention and emergency response are concerned are four folds. The first major responsibility of DHS is safeguarding the United States by preventing terrorism and enhancing national security (Charvat, 2012). According to Charvat (2012), safeguarding the U.S. and its citizens from terrorism was the cornerstone for its formation, following the 9/11 incident. The 9/11 incident exposed the country’s vulnerability to terrorism of whatever kind. Therefore, in response to the incident, the then president, George Walker Bush found it necessary to form an independent department responsible for safeguarding the country from terrorist threats. It is reported that DHS works in collaboration with other federal Departments and agencies to ensure that the country remain safe and secure to live in and do business. In fulfilling its mandate of safeguarding the country against terrorism, DHS also focuses on the prevention of unauthorized importation, acquisition, or use of nuclear, biological, and chemical materials and capabilities within the country’s borders. In addition, DHS focuses on reducing vulnerability of key leadership, crucial infrastructure, and events to terrorist attacks and other catastrophes (Ball, 2005). Indeed many agree that the safety of the United States have increased tremendously since the formation of the Department of Homeland Security. So far, the country has not suffered a major incidence of terrorism (Charvat, 2012). In addition, with the help of the DHS, the President Obama administration have been able to kill Osama, the mastermind of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. However, this is not to say that the U.S. is absolutely safe from terrorism. This is because th e country recently witnessed an incident of terrorism during the Boston marathon, which left some people dead and scores injured. The incidence show that the DHS still needs to do more to safeguard the country and citizens from terrorism.

Final english Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Final english - Essay Example More importantly, governments are also providing incentives and tax waives to people who buy hybrid cars in order to encourage the manufacturers in their efforts to manufacture energy efficient automobile engines. Different automobile engines have evolved with time. However, the most common are the 4 cylinder inline engine, v6, v8, and hybrid engines. This paper discusses the different automobile engines whilst comparing their technology, efficiency, environmental friendliness, and the challenges faced while developing engines that are more efficient. Additionally, the paper will discuss the advantages of hybrid cars with much reference to Toyota Prius. 4 Cylinder (V4) Inline Engines Perhaps 4 cylinder inline engines are the most commonly used engines today. However, the technology for this type of engine has revolutionized for decades. Many improvements have been made on the engines to make them efficient, more powerful, and compact and environmental friendly. Technologically, the 4 cylinder inline engine has all the four cylinders arranged in a straight line with all the four pistons being used to drive a common crankshaft. In most cars, the piston displacement goes up to 2.4 liters. However, diesel powered 4 cylinder inline engines have most often gone beyond 3.0 liters displacement. Notably, a series of modifications have been made on this type of engine. Whereas most of earlier versions used carburetor, modern cars use complicated electrical systems such as the VVTi systems (â€Å"U.S department of Energy†). Indeed, most modern cars produced in the last ten years have a computerized system otherwise referred to as engine management systems for controlling fuel and air into the engine. Considering the widespread use of4 cylinder inline engines, it is safe to conclude that these are the most efficient automobile engines so far especially considering the widespread use of gasoline and diesel as the propellant (â€Å"U.S department of Energy†). V 6 Engines V6 engines are indeed the second most commonly used engines in automobiles. The v6 engine comprises of 6 cylinders with 6 pistons driving a common crankshaft. However, the 6 cylinders are not often placed in one straight line. Actually, three cylinders are put on either side making a v shape with the crankshaft. Most of these engines are either configured at 60 degrees or 90 degrees. However, the 60 degree orientation is arguably the most efficient and provides less engine vibration as well. However, it is important to note that most v6 engines are most commonly used in medium sized cars especially most of the lower end sports utility vehicles (SUVs). However, in line with the need for energy conservation, v6 engines have undergone tremendous improvements. For instance, the inline 6cylinder engines are no longer being manufactured. The piston angle has also been factored in many model manufacturing. For instance, some of the modern cars using v6 engines are either turbocha rged or use super chargers to improve fuel efficiency and produce more torque. Simply put, turbo chargers are systems that compress and sometimes preheat air and force it into combustion chambers at high pressure hence generating more energy (â€Å"U.S department of Energy†). V8 engines V8 engines have eight cylinders with four cylinders on each side. All the eight cylinders drive the same

Art work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Art work - Essay Example It belongs to the Metropolitan museum of Art. The credit line to this piece of art belongs to George A. Hearn Fund, 1957. Judging from this piece, I get to realize that Jackson Pollock was a prime champion of his time.by standing before this abstract painting and many others that he has done, one can observe his level of fineness. One immediately realizes that he was the greatest painter America ever produced. My attraction and appreciation of this piece shows my love for abstract painting. My desire to produce such fine work is engraved to the feeling of desire to achieve the levels of success that Jackson did. It also shows my belief in expressing emotions efficiently through abstract painting. The metropolitan museum of art. Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) Jackson Pollock  (American, Cody, Wyoming 1912–1956 East Hampton, New York): retrieved from http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/210009206. Retrieved on

Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice Essay Example for Free

Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice Essay I did not understand why I had to take a research class when all I wanted to do was be a staff nurse in a critical care unit. Research? Evidence-based practice? Why are these topics in the nursing program? I have enough to do just learning all the content in my clinical courses. What do research and evidence have to do with developing my nursing abilities? I trust the faculty, the textbooks, and clinical experience to prepare me for nursing. I’m already getting what I need to know. That was my earlier attitude. Now that I am practicing, I have a new appreciation for nursing research and the evidence it provides for application to practice. I have an entirely different way of addressing clinical questions. I’m starting to ask questions about how I can improve the care I give to patients and how I can be involved in my workplace’s efforts to improve care for the patients it serves. I have discovered by purposeful reading in my practice area that research reports and research summaries contain many implications that apply to practice in the critical care unit.  ¦ QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHILE READING THIS CHAPTER: 1 How can faculty encourage students to read research journals? 2 How does research affect nursing practice? 3 How can nurses motivate colleagues to base their practice on research? KEY TERMS Clinical nurse researcher (CNR) An advanced practice nurse who is doctorally prepared and directs and participates in clinical research. Clinical nurse specialist (CNS) An advanced practice nurse who provides direct care to clients and participates in health education and research. Clinical practice guideline (CPG) an evidence-based guide to clinical practice developed by experts in a particular ? eld for direct application in clinical environments. Control group Subjects in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment and whose performance provides a baseline against which the effects of the treatment can be measured. When a true experimental design is not used, this group is usually called a comparison group. Data collection The process of acquiring existing information or developing new information. 104 Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice CHAPTER 6 105 Empirical Having a foundation based on data gathered through the senses (e. g. , observation or experience) rather than purely through theorizing or logic. Ethnography A qualitative research method for the purpose of investigating cultures that involves data collection, description, and analysis of data to develop a theory of cultural behavior. Evidence-based practice The process of systematically ? nding, appraising, and using research ? ndings as the basis for clinical practice. Experimental design A design that includes randomization, a control group, and manipulation between or among variables to examine probability and causality among selected variables for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena. Generalizability The inference that ? ndings can be generalized from the sample to the entire population. Grant Proposal developed to seek research funding from private or public agencies. Grounded theory A qualitative research design used to collect and analyze data with the aim of developing theories grounded in real-world observations. This method is used to study a social process. Meta-analysis Quantitative merging of ? ndings from several studies to determine what is known about a phenomenon. Methodologic design A research design used to develop the validity and reliability of instruments that measure research concepts and variables. Naturalistic paradigm A holistic view of nature and the direction of science that guides qualitative research. Needs assessment A study in which the researcher collects data for estimating the needs of a group, usually for resource allocation. Phenomenology A qualitative research design that uses inductive descriptive methodology to describe the lived experiences of study participants. Pilot study A smaller version of a proposed study conducted to develop or re? ne methodology, such as treatment, instruments, or data collection process to be used in a larger study. Qualitative research A systematic, subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning. Quantitative research A formal, objective, systematic process used to describe and test relationships and examine cause-and-effect interactions among variables. Quasi-experimental research A type of quantitative research study design that lacks one of the components (randomization, control group, manipulation of one or more variables) of an experimental design. Randomization The assignment of subjects to treatment conditions in a random manner (determined by chance alone). Secondary analysis A research design in which data previously collected in another study are analyzed. State-of-the-science summary A merging of ? ndings from several studies concerning the same topic. Examples include meta-analysis with a quantitative approach and integrative review with a descriptive approach. Survey A nonexperimental research design that focuses on obtaining information regarding the status quo of a situation, often through direct questioning of participants. Triangulation The use of a variety of methods to collect data on the same concept. LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to: 1 Summarize major points in the evolution of nursing research in relation to contemporary nursing. 2 Evaluate the in? uence of nursing research on current nursing and health care practices. 3 Differentiate among nursing research methods. 4 Evaluate the quality of research studies using established criteria. 5 Participate in the research process. 6 Use research ? ndings to improve nursing practice. 106 UNIT ONE The Development of Nursing CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter provides basic knowledge regarding the research process and the ultimate importance of evidence-based nursing practice. The intent is to inspire an appreciation for nursing research and to show how it can improve nursing practice and how results can be translated into health policy. Nursing research is de? ned as a systematic approach used to examine phenomena important to nursing and nurses. A summary of major points in the evolution of nursing research in relation to contemporary nursing is presented. A description of private and public organizations that fund research is given, and their research priorities are listed. Major research designs are brie? y described, and examples of each are given. Nurses of all educational levels are encouraged to participate in and promote nursing research at varying degrees. The process of locating research and evidence for practice is reviewed. Students are introduced to the research process and guided in the process of critically appraising published research and research syntheses. Ethical issues related to research are examined, and historical examples of unethical research are given. The functions of the institutional review board (IRB) and the use of informed consent in protecting the rights of human subjects are emphasized. DEFINITION OF NURSING RESEARCH Research is a process of systematic inquiry or study to build knowledge in a discipline. The purpose of research is to develop an empirical body of knowledge for a discipline or profession. Speci? cally, research validates and re? nes existing knowledge and develops new knowledge (Burns and Grove, 2007). The results of research process provide a foundation on which practice decisions and behaviors are laid. Research results create a strong scienti? c base for nursing practice, especially when deliberately and carefully evaluated for application to speci? c clinical topics (Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt, 2005). In recent decades the nursing discipline has begun to pay much greater attention to the necessity of participating in research. Nursing research is a systematic approach used to examine phenomena important to nursing and nurses. Because nursing is a practice profession, it is important that clinical practice be based on scienti? c knowledge. Evidence generated by nursing research provides support for the quality and cost-effectiveness of nursing interventions. Thus recipients of health care—and particularly nursing care—reap bene? ts when nurses attend to research evidence and introduce change based on that evidence into nursing practice. The introduction of evidence-based change into the direct provision of nursing care may occur at the individual level of a particular nurse or at varied organizational or social levels. In addition to nursing research aimed at affecting the direct provision of nursing and health care to recipients of nursing care, nursing research also is needed to generate knowledge in areas that affect nursing care processes indirectly. Research within the realms of nursing education, nursing administration, health services, characteristics of nurses, and nursing roles provides evidence for effectively changing these supporting areas of nursing knowledge (Burns and Grove, 2007). Today the importance of nursing research to the discipline is recognized. However, much nursing history underlies the current state of acceptance. EVOLUTION OF NURSING RESEARCH Nursing research began with the work of Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War. After Florence Nightingale’s work, the pattern that nursing research followed was closely related to the problems confronting nurses. For example, nursing education was the focus of most research studies between 1900 and 1940. As more nurses received their education Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice CHAPTER 6 107 in a university setting, studies regarding student characteristics and satisfactions were conducted. As more nurses pursued a college education, staf? ng patterns in hospitals changed because students were not as readily available as when more students were enrolled in hospitalaf? liated diploma programs. During this period, researchers became interested in studying nurses. Questions such as what type of person enters nursing and how are nurses perceived by other groups guided research investigations. Teaching, administration, and curriculum were studies that dominated nursing research until the 1970s. By the 1970s more doctorally prepared nurses were conducting research, and there was a shift to studies that focused on the improvement of patient care. The 1980s brought nursing research to a new stage of development. There were many more quali? ed nurse researchers than ever, widespread availability of computers for collection and analysis of data, and a realization that research is a vital part of professional nursing (Polit and Beck, 2006). Nurse researchers began conducting studies based on the naturalistic paradigm. These studies were qualitative rather than quantitative. In addition, instead of conducting many small, unrelated research studies, teams of researchers, often interdisciplinary, began conducting programs of research to build bodies of knowledge related to speci? c topics, such as urinary incontinence, decubitus ulcers, pain, and quality of life. The 1990s brought increasing concern about health care reform, and now in the twenty-? rst century, research studies focus on important health care delivery issues, such as cost, quality, and access. Research ? ndings are being used increasingly as the basis for clinical decisions. Evidencebased practice (EBP) can be de? ned as the process of systematically ? nding, appraising, and using research ? ndings as a basis for making decisions about patient care. The rise of technology and the worldwide access and ? ow of information have transformed the decision-making processes of practitioners. Helpful informational websites for busy practitioners are listed in Box 6-1. No longer do nurses simply compare outcomes of patient care with other units in the B O X 6–1 Helpful Websites l f l b i National Guideline Clearinghouse—resource for evidence-based clinical practice guidelines www. guidelines. gov US Department of Veterans Affairs Clinical Practice Guidelines www. healthquality. va. gov AHRQ Healthcare Innovations Exchange—innovations and tools to improve health care www. innovations. ahrq. gov/index. aspx The Evidence-Based Medicine Education Center of Excellence—extensive list of databases, journals, and textbooks http://library. ncahec. net/ebm/pages/resources. htm U. S. National Institute for Health Consensus statements http://consensus. nih. gov Centre for Evidence-Based Nursing, based at University of York—United Kingdom www. york. ac. uk/healthsciences/centres/evidence/cebn. htm The Joanna Briggs Institute, based at Royal Adelaide Hospital and the University of Adelaide, Australia—multiple evidence resources for practice www. joannabriggs. edu. au Cochrane Center—resource for evidence-based clinical practice guidelines www. cochrane. org 108 UNIT ONE The Development of Nursing same hospital. Nurses and other health care professionals are more likely to look for solutions, choices, and outcomes for patients that represent the best available knowledge internationally (Hamer and Collinson, 2005). RESEARCH PRIORITIES Why set priorities for research in the nursing discipline? Can nurses do research in areas that match personal areas of interest? The answer to the second question is, yes, certainly. But nursing exists to provide high-quality nursing care to individuals in need of health-promoting, health-sustaining, and health-restoring strategies. The main outcome of research activity for a nurse is to eventually put the knowledge gained to work in health care delivery. Research priorities, often set by groups that fund research, encourage nurse researchers to invest effort and money into those areas of research likely to generate the most bene? t to recipients of care. Of course the funding opportunities offered by such groups do not hurt the research enterprise either. Research costs money. Thus nurses engaged in research often match personal interests with funding opportunities that are available during the planning phase for a proposed investigation. Two major sources of funding for nursing research are the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) (formerly known as the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research [AHCPR] and reauthorized as AHRQ by Congress in 1999). Both of these organizations are funded by federal congressional appropriations. Private foundations and nursing organizations also provide funding for nursing research. National Institute of Nursing Research As part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the NINR supports research on the biologic and behavioral aspects of critical health problems that confront the nation. The NINR’s research focus encompasses â€Å"health promotion and disease prevention, quality of life, health disparities, and end-of-life† (NINR Strategic Plan 2006-2010, 2006). A small sampling of potentially supported research topics includes those aimed at: ? Determining disease risk and treatment through utilizing genetic information ? Determining effective health-promotion strategies for individuals, families, and communities ? Discovering approaches that encourage people to effectively take responsibility for symptom management and health promotion ? Assisting in identi? cation and effective management of symptoms related to acute and chronic disease ? Improving clinical settings in which care is provided ? Improving the quality of care giving in settings such as long-term care facilities, the home, and the community ? Understanding predisposition to disease, socioeconomic factors that in? uence health, and cultural health practices that either protect from or expose to risk for health problems ? Improving symptom management for those at end of life The areas of research emphasis published by the NINR are useful guides for investigators developing proposals but are not considered to be prescriptive in nature. Investigators bring to bear their own unique expertise and creativity when proposing research in harmony with NINR priority research areas. Annually the NINR conducts a roundtable discussion with multiple nursing organizations to obtain the feedback of the disciplines regarding the need for continued or new research Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice CHAPTER 6 109 emphases. Information obtained is used in setting future research agendas and making decisions about funding of proposals submitted by researchers (Of? ce of Science Policy and Public Liaison, NINR, 2009). The NINR website details current announcements regarding research priorities (www. ninr. nih. gov/ResearchAndFunding). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality The AHRQ broadly de? nes its mission as â€Å"improving the quality, safety, ef? ciency, and effectiveness of health care for all Americans† (AHRQ, 2009a). As an agency of the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, the AHRQ’s health-related aims are to reduce the risk of harm by promoting delivery of the best possible health care, improve health care outcomes by encouraging the use of evidence to make informed health care decisions, transform research into practice to facilitate wider access to effective health care services, and reduce unnecessary costs (AHRQ, 2009a). Since the inception of the agency in 1989, strategic goals have centered on supporting improvements in health outcomes, strengthening measurement of health care quality indicators, and fostering access to and cost-effectiveness of health care. The 1999 reauthorizing legislation expanded the role of the agency by directing the AHRQ to: ? Improve the quality of health care through scienti? c inquiry, dissemination of ? ndings, and facilitation of public access to information. ? Promote patient safety and reduce medical errors through scienti? c inquiry, building partnerships with health care providers, and establishment of centers for education and research on therapeutics (CERTs). ? Advance the use of information technology for coordinating patient care and conducting quality and outcomes research. ? Establish an of? ce on priority populations to ensure that the needs of low-income groups, minorities, women, children, the elderly, and individuals with special health care needs are addressed by the agency’s research efforts. The research-related activities of the AHRQ are quite varied, but a recent shift emphasizes a more deliberate translation of research evidence into practice. In a process similar to that used by the NIH, investigators are invited to submit research proposals for possible funding through grant announcements. A listing of current areas of the agency’s research interests can be found online at www. ahrq. gov/fund/portfolio. htm. The AHRQ actively promotes EBP, partially through the establishment of 14 EBP centers (EPCs) in the United States and Canada. EPCs conduct research on assigned clinical care topics and generate reports on the effectiveness of health care methodologies. Health care providers may then use the evidence in developing site-speci? c guidelines that direct clinical practice. AHRQ also actively maintains the National Guideline Clearinghouse (www. guidelines. gov), an website that makes available to health care professionals a wide array of clinical practice guidelines that may be considered in health care decision making. Another recent addition to AHRQ’s initiatives is the Healthcare Innovations Exchange (2009b), which provides a public source of information about innovations taking place in health care delivery. Submitted innovations are reviewed for the quality of achieved outcomes, providing evidence as a foundation for decision making by others who may be searching for or considering similar innovations. Although most AHRQ activities are intended to support health care professionals and institutions, the agency supports health care recipients by designing some information speci? cally for dissemination to the lay public (AHRQ, 2009a). 110 UNIT ONE The Development of Nursing Private Foundations Federal funding is available through the NIH and the AHRQ. However, because obtaining money for research is becoming increasingly competitive, voluntary foundations and private and community-based organizations should be investigated as possible funding sources. Many foundations and corporate direct-giving programs are interested in funding health care projects and research. Computer databases and guides to funding are available in local libraries. In addition, grant-seeking enterprises often purchase subscriptions that allow computer access to enhanced listings of funding foundations that include information about the types of projects those foundations typically fund. Though subscriptions are expensive, costs are often balanced by the ef? ciency with which suitable funding prospects are identi? ed. An example of such a service is Prospect Research Online (www. iwave. com). Private foundations, such as the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2009a, 2009b) or the W. K. Kellogg Foundation (2009), offer program funding for health-related research. Investigators should be encouraged to pursue funding for small projects through local sources or private foundations until a track record is established in research design and implementation. After several years of experience in the research arena, investigators are more likely to be successful in securing funding through federal sources, such as the NIH. Nursing Organizations Sigma Theta Tau International (STTI), the American Nurses Association (ANA), and the Oncology Nurses Society (ONS), are a few of the nursing organizations that fund research studies. STTI makes research grant awards to increase scienti? c knowledge related to nursing practice. STTI supports creative interdisciplinary research and places importance on identifying â€Å"best practices† and benchmark innovations. Awards are made at the international and local chapter levels. The ANA awards small grants through the American Nurses Foundation. Specialty nursing organizations offer grants to support research related to their specialty. For example, the ONS awards grants that focus on issues related to oncology. To summarize, multiple potential sources of funding are available for research projects. The individual or group wishing to conduct research will need to carefully develop a proposal, search for a possible funding source, and submit the proposal. Libraries and the Internet provide ample information about the many foundations and organizations interested in funding research endeavors. Most research institutions establish of? ces that help in the search and procurement of funding. Thus researchers are supported in their work of knowledge building. COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS The research process involves conceptualizing a research study, planning and implementing that study, and communicating the ? ndings. The process involves a logical ? ow as each step builds on the previous steps. These steps should be included in published research reports so that the reader has a basis for understanding and critiquing the study (Box 6-2). STUDY DESIGNS Study designs are plans that tell a researcher how data are to be collected, from whom data are to be collected, and how data will be analyzed to answer speci? c research questions. Research studies are classi? ed into two basic methods: quantitative and qualitative, two distinctly different approaches to conducting research. The researcher chooses the method based on the research question and the current level of knowledge about the phenomena and the problem to be studied. Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numeric